Exploring the spatial characteristics of energy injustice: A comparison of the power generation landscapes in Spain, Denmark, and South Korea

Energy developments frequently involve land degradation, human health impacts, impacts on ecosystems, and damage to the social fabric. The uneven distribution of these impacts can lead to situations of spatial inequality, in which regions importing electricity are exempt from the environmental costs of power generation and distribution while the producing regions pay the socioecological costs of overproducing energy that will eventually be consumed far away. While conceptualizing energy injustice (EiJ) has been a prominent topic in the literature in recent years, less attention has been paid to how EiJ can be measured. This paper proposes indices that can measure the spatial characteristics of EiJ from three different angles: evenness, concentration, and centralization. We illustrate the utility of the proposed indices by applying them to the cases of Spain, Denmark, and South Korea. Data from all three show a common EiJ pattern in the form of the rural–urban divide: peripheral regions having more generation than capital cities. In terms of evenness, Denmark exhibited the most equitable distribution of power generation, followed by Spain and South Korea. The number and size of the top producing regions were proportionally greater in South Korea, which potentially indicates less injustice in terms of concentration, compared to Denmark and Spain. Future research should pay more attention to the socioeconomic implications of energy production, particularly for the most affected regions. Our methodology can help policymakers design fairer energy and regional planning policies.